James Diego Thomson

South America

Dr. James Thomson

I

General survey – Revolutionized between 1810-1824 – Mixed population – Slavery abolished by the new states – Indians – Divisions of the continent -  Brazil – Buenos Ayres – Patagonia – Uruguay – Paraguay – Chili – Peru – Bolivia - Ecuador – New Granada – Venezuela – Guayana – The Falkland Islands – Colombia – Geographical Nomenclatures – Spanish America - Mexico – Denominations of Races – Belize - Guatemala

A general view of South America is the first thing that merits attention, as a basis for further observa­tions. To this will be added similar notices of those parts of North America lying contiguous to the South­ern Continent, and resembling it in the class and circumstances of its inhabitants.

The continent of South America, compared with the other continents of our globe, may, perhaps, be considered superior to them all, taking its various circum­stances together. I am speaking of its position, features, and capabilities, and not of its inhabitants. A large portion of this continent lies within the Torrid Zone, whilst yet, by the elevation of the land over a considerable extent, the heat is much mitigated. All the fruits of the earth are produced on it, and in several instances, all degrees of climate are to be found within a small compass; so that in the public market of many towns, the whole range of vegetable productions for the use of man, may be seen together, and have been grown all in the same neighbourhood. Nearly all its surface is fit for cultivation, and much of it is very rich, whilst its rivers are open for commerce alike in winter as in summer. Its capabilities, therefore, of supporting an extensive population may be considered greater than any other of our continents. At present it is very thinly peopled; but in the better days of the world yet to come, it will teem, we may believe, with a greatly numerous and a righteous population, and it will then occupy that stand and weight in the world which its physical and local circumstance give it.

Among the interesting features of this continent may be considered the noble chain, or rather chains, of the Andes. In their vast extent and height, its numerous, long, and navigable rivers; and its immense plains. The condor flying high above the loftiest mountains, and the huge boa-constrictor are among its animal wonders. The everlasting snows on its heights within the tropics, and the many volcanoes, and frequent earthquakes in some of its regions, are other striking features of this magnificent continent.

The Spaniards and the Portuguese were the discoverers and the early settlers, or rather colonisers of this continent, and its grand divisions in former times were, Brazil belonging to the Portuguese; and the viceroyalties of Buenos Ayres, Peru, and New Granada, with the captain-generalships of the Caracas and Chili, belonging to the Spaniards.

But the whole of that continent has been revolutionized. In 1810 these changes commenced, and they may be said to have terminated in 1824. The form of government adopted by all the new nations which have sprung up is republican, except in Brazil, which has an Emperor, and a constitution— a combination, nowhere else, I believe, to be met with.

The population over these quarters is of a mixed character. An extensive native population was found in several parts of South America, when it was discovered by Europeans. This class forms what may be called the basis of the present population. The natives are of a very dark complexion, in many cases approaching to black, whilst in other cases it is darkish brown. The next ingredient in the population is the white European, the colonists from Spain and Portugal. The third class and colour is the black, from Africa. In the hotter places these last are numerous, whilst fewer are found in temperate region. A fourth class of the population is composed of all these colours, and may be divided mainly into two sorts, the mestizo and the mulatto; the former being the offspring of the white and the Indian, and the latter that of the white and the Negro. All shades intermediate are, of course, to be found, and these mixtures form no inconsiderable portion of the whole.

The natives were subjected by the colonists to what may well be called slavery, though that name was not used. At the revolution, in the different places, these bonds were broken. Still, however, their freedom is rather nominal in many instances, but in others it is full. A noble declaration was made by most of these new states in favour of the slaves, at the time their own freedom commenced. From these dates respectively, no child could be born a slave. Measures also were taken at the same time for ameliorating the condition of the existing slaves, and for emancipating some from period to period, thus contemplating an early extinction of this sore evil. It is to be regretted, that the emancipating measures were not more fully carried into effect; for had they been so, slavery would have been by this time either extinct or very nearly so. Brazil must be excepted in this measure of freedom for all who should be born, and in regard to other favourable measures bearing on the subject. There, unfortunately, slavery is still seen in its darkest state, as in the worst of past times.

The entire population of this large and fine continent may be about sixteen millions. Its extent in square miles is about eight millions, thus giving only two for each square mile over the whole. What a field, there­fore, is here for emigration from Europe!

The Indian portion of the population is, as already indicated, very numerous, and forms the main body of the people. All the Indians here spoken of are in a civilised state, and are cultivators of the ground generally, whilst some are otherwise employed. In this respect they differ greatly from the Indians of North America; and this difference needs especially to be mentioned, in order to correct an error we naturally entertain in this country, in thinking that all the Indians in South America are like those in the North, and whom we know to live a wandering savage life. These Indians also are all professors of religion, such as it is found in the country generally. They speak their own native tongues in most cases, though many of them understand the general language spoken by the whites.

In the great central parts of the continent, which can be considered as only virtually connected with the surrounding nations, savage Indians are chiefly to be found, but their numbers are not great.

The present divisions of the South American continent may now be noticed.

Brazil is the largest, and contains about three and a quarter millions of square miles, with a population of about five million, thus giving less than two for each square mile. In addition to all the tropical productions, lying, as it does, nearly all in the Torrid Zone, Brazil is noted for its gold and diamonds, and it is noted, too, I may say, for its slavery.

Buenos Ayres, or the Argentine Republic, may be next mentioned. Its extent is 900,000 square miles, and its population 1,800,000, giving exactly two in the square mile. It is noted for its grand river, the Plate, and for its immense plain, stretching from the Atlantic to the Andes, say 1,100 miles. Part of this plain is covered with large herds of cattle, but not running wild without owners, as some have stated, but all owned and marked. In the city of Buenos Ayres there are said to be some 20,000 foreigners.  The productions are those of the most favoured portions of the Temperate Zone.

Patagonia is a portion of the territory embraced in this republic, though generally marked apart in the maps. Savages of various tribes and statures roam over this large tract, and come to the city of Buenos Ayres at times to traffic.

Uruguay lies on the north side, near the entrance of the River Plate, and formerly belonged to the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It is small, containing only about 75,000 square miles, with perhaps 100,000 inhabitants, or one and a quarter to the mile. A very large portion of this population consists of foreigners, chiefly French, of which there are said to be about 12,000.

Paraguay is another small republic lying north of Uruguay, but separated from it, occupying a space between the rivers Paraná and Paraguay. It contains 80,000 square miles, and some 250,000 inhabitants, making three and odd to the square mile. Paraguay a within the tropics, and yields all the fruits of hot countries. The River Paraná is navigable to its capital, Assumption, and far above it.

Chili lies on the west and south of the continent, and contains 170,000 square miles, and 1,200,000 inhabitants , or seven to the square mile. Earthquakes are here frequent, particularly at the entrance and outgoing of the rainy season. The snows of the Andes are the sources of its rivers, and their only supply during the eight months of summer, or dry weather. Hence these rivers exhibit, in that season, the singular phenomenon of being larger near their sources than at their mouths on entering the sea. Chili has an excellent climate, and is rich in its productions, being those of the Temperate Zone. It has also mines of gold and copper of considerable extent.

Peru lies to the north of Chili, skirting the western coast. Its extent is 490,000 square miles, and its population is 1,600,000, or about three and a half to each mile. Ancient Peru was much more extensive and populous. It extended northward beyond the Equator. On the coast of Peru there is no rain, thunder, nor lightning, but earthquakes are very fre­quent, and more so than in Chili, and they happen at all times alike. The whites form about one-eighth of the population, the Negroes one-tenth, and the rest, or greater half, are Indians. Its productions near the coast are those of the Torrid Zone, in which it lies; but to the interior they are those of the Temperate Zone, owing to the great elevation of the land.

Bolivia is situated to the south and east of Peru, and before the revolution was an integral part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It is of the extent of 450,000 square miles, and has a population of 1,500,000, or a full three and a quarter to the square mile. The famous silver mine of Potosí lies in this state. Though within the tropics, its productions are chiefly those found in temperate climates, the elevation being considerable.

Ecuador, or as we would say, Equator, comes next to be noticed. It lies to the north of Peru, and was all embraced in the territory of the ancient Peruvian empire, as is clearly indicated by the same language being spoken there as in Peru down to the present day. The Equator runs through the state, a few miles to the north of Quito, its capital, which is elevated nearly 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Owing, however, to the great height of the territory generally above the level of the sea, the climate is over the greater part temperate. The number of square miles in it is 200,000, and its population is 700,000, or nearly three to each square mile.

New Granada is to the north of Ecuador, and partly eastward. A large portion of this state also is highly elevated, and hence its productions on those parts are those of a temperate region, instead of being tropical, as the latitude indicates. Here there is a population of 1,800,000, on a surface of 450,000 square miles, which makes four to each mile. Gold and platina are the principal metals here.

Venezuela. This states occupies the middle portion of the northern coast of the continent, and forms a noble head to it in its high prominent land abutting on the coast. The surface of Venezuela extends over 420,000 square miles, and its population may be set down at one million, thus showing somewhat more than two and a quarter for each square mile. Some two-thirds of this population are of the African race: one-sixth may be whites, and the rest Indians and mixtures. The best cacáo anywhere found is grown here. This is the fruit from which the chocolate is made, and which we improperly call cocoa, which is the term used in speaking of the cocoa-nut, a fruit of a totally different kind. The climate of this country, in its variety, suits all articles anywhere grown. An agricultural phenomenon is to be seen in this quarter; namely, a wheat field and a sugar-cane field side by side of each other. The beautiful valley of Aragua exhibits this rare and interesting sight.

Guayana, lying between the mouths of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, on the north-east, is the only part of the continent now remaining as connected with Europe on the colonial system, under which all was in former times, and say for 300 years. Guayana is divided into three portions, and belongs to England, Holland, and France. These colonies form part of the West Indies; but we must be careful not to say they are part of the West India islands, for islands they are not. The productions in Guayana are, as in the West Indies generally, and the labouring population as there, emancipated Negroes in the English part, and slaves in the other two.

The Falkland Islands might here be mentioned at the close of this enumeration, by way of embracing all, as they are islands connected with the continent of South America. These are claimed and held by the English, though we cannot say they form a colony, or even a settlement, there are so few settled there. These islands lie to the north-east of Terra del Fuego.

The distinct and independent nations occupying the continent of South America, and as above described, are ten in number. Formerly, and since the days of independence, there was a nation there styled Colombia. This, however, as a name, is no more; for its territory now constitutes the three republics of Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela.

Whilst speaking of this Colombia, it might be well to say a word about the geographical nomenclature of this new world. Everybody would say, and has said, that it ought to be called after its discoverer, Columbus, and not after Amerigo Vespucci, its pil­ferer, as I may call him. It is not yet too late to do justice to Columbus in the case. The assumption of the word Colombia for the parts above named seemed for awhile to stand in the way of this, but that obstacle is now removed, I would, therefore, humbly but earnestly propose, that the name Columbia should be given to the entire New World, including North and South America, and the West Indies, and for sub-divisions we might say, North Columbia, South Columbia, and the Antilles. As to the name America, I would propose that it should remain as the name of the United States alone, and, in fact, this is the sense in which we almost always use it in our common parlance. The name West Indies should be dropped, as incorrect in its origin and application. Antilles is a convenient term, and already in good use. The Caribbean Sea should he called the Columbian Archipelago.

We have now gone over the whole of the continent of South America, and are come, say, to the famous Isthmus of Panama, which joins it to the northern continent. Two provinces on this neck belong to New Granada—namely, Darien and Veragua.

Guatemala, or Central America, follows these provinces; and farther west and north is Mexico. Both these are parts of Spanish America, and have separated themselves from Spain, as well as the territories in the south. The latter was so distinguished a part of the Spanish dominions as to be called New Spain. The location of Mexico and Guatemala should he well ob­served, but this rarely is the case, as we very frequently hear them spoken of as if they were parts of South America. The term South America is used in this error for Spanish America; but the distinction should be carefully attended to both in speaking and writing.

Mexico is the largest and most populous part of all Spanish America. It became independent in 1821. The extent is 1,320,000 square miles, and it contains 7,000,000 inhabitants; thus making over five for the square mile. The Indians form the major part of the population, and are of different tribes, speaking many distinct languages, which, in several cases, have no affinity with each other; a circumstance difficult to unriddle, among other difficulties in respect to ancient America, or, let me say for the first time, Columbia. The whites in Mexico may be about one-fifth in number. The Negro race does not form a large proportion, but the mixed classes are numerous.  A word may here be said about the denominations of races and their offspring in those parts. The descendants of whites, born in the country, are called Creoles. The mixture of white and Indian, Mestizo, of white and Negro, Mulatto, of Indian and Negro, Zambo. The issues of these classes severally have their distinctive names also, and on to several degrees of blood; but it is not necessary here to notice them.

Mexico is another of the several places in Spanish America having all varieties of climate within itself,  and the market in the city of Mexico, and in all the large towns, exhibits the productions of all those varieties every day. Silver and gold are found here extensively, as, it may be said, all the world knows. The former is the most abundant, and the latter is generally combined with it, and requires to be separated from it by a special pro­cess, after the mineral has assumed the metallic state. Cochineal also is a staple of Mexico, but its cultivation is confined almost entirely to one district, that of Oaxaca, in the eastern quarter of the country. In a wild, or uncultivated state, the cochineal, and the plant on which it feeds, are to be found in abundance all over Mexico.

The great mass of the population is settled on the high, or table lands, and within the tropics. Northward of twenty-five degrees north latitude two-thirds of the territory lie, but possessing only about one-tenth of the population. Southward, occupying only one-third of the territory, are settled the other nine-tenths, and this quarter is densely peopled, compared with these countries generally, as it shows fifteen to the square mile. Several Indian tribes roam over these northern parts, and are still in a savage state. The two finest formed men the writer ever saw in his life, were of those Indians, bare headed and footed, and armed with bows and arrows.

Mexico imitated the noble conduct of the other Spanish American nations, in declaring every birth free-born, and is not guilty of neglecting the slave’s case otherwise, like the other states. The year 1818 saw Mexico without a single slave over its extended territory. This nobleness of Mexico deserves to be emblazoned. Must we add to this (but, oh! tell it not in Gath!) that Texas, freed from slavery by Mexico, has been again subjected to it by the people and government of the United States!

On the south-east of the peninsula of Yucatan, which forms part of Mexico, is the settlement called Belize. This is a de facto but not de jure British colony, and forms part of our West Indies, but we must here again avoid the word Island, as in the case of Guayana.

Guatemala, or Central America, as has already to indicated, lies to the east of Mexico. Its surface contains 200,000 square miles, and the population amounts to two millions, thus giving ten to the square mile. Taking in view the whole of the nations here treated of, we find this last to be the most densely peopled of them all, as we have here ten to the square mile, while the highest of the others—namely, Mexico—is five, and the next, New Granada, is four. If, however, we compare the southern-third of Mexico, as above noticed, we shall find it considerably to exceed Guatemala, having, as before noticed, fifteen to the square mile. This densely peopled region of Mexico and Guatemala formed the empire of Montezuma.

Evangelical Christendom I, May 1847: 154-156.

II

State and circumstances of religion – All Roman Catholic – Inquisition houses – Inquisition abolished – Processions – Sacred places – Hearing mass – Sabbath desecration – Morals – Murder of a prior – Gambling – Cockfighting – Assassinations – Murderers rarely executed – Bull-baiting – Lotteries – The Carnival – Public justice – Government officers – Anecdote – Courtesy – Instances of conscientiousness, honesty, and honourable conduct.

In the article No. 1, a general and very brief view has been given of this continent, and parts adjacent to it, as to their geography and some other particulars. In this article, as promised at the close of the last, we enter upon the stale of religion in those quarters, and circumstances connected with it.

All the nations in question, extending over the entire field here embraced, are of the Roman Catholic religion, as might have been expected from the nations which colonised their territories. It will be found generally, that colonies are always lower than their mother countries, in point of light, morals, and religion. One reason of this may be, that to all that the colonizers carry out with them of an unfavourable nature, must be added those evil effects which arise from an inter- mixture with the natives of the countries colonized, which are often in nearly the lowest state of degrada­tion, and more or less practising idolatry. There was also another demoralizing element connected with these colonies which increased the evil, and this was slavery. Perhaps, speaking generally, we might venture to say, that where the Spanish colonists had least contact with the natives on the one hand, and on the other, where there were the fewest slaves, there was the population less dark in morals and religion, as also in general civilization.

The jealousies exercised by Spain in regard to the colonies, in the dread of foreigners visiting them, or residing there, and in the exclusion of the superior light prevailing in other countries over what was in Spain, all acted disfavourably for these colonies.

Whilst light was thus carefully guarded against that it might not enter, darkness had free and full entrance and sway. The Inquisition, the disgrace long and late of Spain and Portugal found its way unimpeded into these regions of  the New World, and extended over the whole of them. In each of the ruling and leading cities, Inquisition houses, like palaces, were erected, and are still to be seen there in witness of past times. This master­piece of Satan's policy in favour of injustice and cruelty under the guise of religion, is now no longer in existence in any of the new nations here treated of. It is but truth and justice to say a word is favour of an individual having little credit with us for good, that he was the firm opposer of the re-establishment of the Inquisition in Spain, after it had been abolished there, and efforts were made to set it up again, and this individual was Ferdinand VII. I do not like to diminish a particle of honour due to this royal head for his services in this case, yet that the whole truth may be told, I am induced to add, that he took his purpose, and firmly adhered to it, not to reinstate the Inquisition, because he would not have two sovereigns  in Spain, and he feared this tribunal would overrule, and, perhaps, also entangle himself. Still Ferdinand did a great service by his purpose and firmness, both to Spain and to all Spanish colonial countries.[1] The houses, the splendid mansions, of this iniquitous tribunal, as I have said, still exist, and they still bear the same name; but they are now converted into Justice halls, a wonderful contrast (if Spanish justice may be so honoured), to what they before were. In other cases, they are occupied in different ways as houses of the state, to which they were all confiscated.

In a country like our own, and in others where Protestants form the great bulk of the population, or indeed any considerable part of it, we cannot judge accurately as to the state of Romanism in those coun­tries where Romanism only is to be found. This system is much modified among us, in the absence of superstitious processions, in the superior conduct of the priests and people, in the more useful nature of their church services, and in various other respects.

In countries wholly Roman in religion, processions are of frequent occurrence, in honour of this saint and of that. Not only all the priesthood, but also the whole mass of the population, high and low, enter into these paradings of the saints, and worship done to them. The public authorities leave all state and civic matters, and head these processions in their richest vestments. The whole military force and music are out, and the very streets and houses where the parade passes enter into the enchantment, in the long extended lines of canopy through street and street under which the procession moves, and in the balconies adorned with costly furniture made for these occasions. At the same time the bells keep all ears full of the ceremony.

In times of drought, or in other calamities, their Queen of heaven is paraded, honoured, and worshipped, that she may send rain, or give such other relief as is sought for.

Among the several processions witnessed, I recollect well seeing one consisting of about 200 ladies, all carrying a large wooden cross over the shoulder, steadied with one hand, whilst in their other a light was carried in full day.

In each of these countries there are several places held sacred and famous for the images of the Virgin, or other saint, in them, and which are said to have wrought many and wondrous miracles, of which nobody doubts. Vows are made to visit these shrines, and to present offerings, by persons at great distances often) and on the given day, the anniversary of the saint or Image, vast crowds assemble, and the idolatry, superstitions, penances, with many other evils which take place, are very great. I recollect one occasion on which about 60,000 persons were brought together in this way. These fêtes generally last for several days. They are rich harvests for the priests. They gather large sums in the presentations to the divinity in question, in fulfilment of vows made. And in many cases the same offerings are presented again and again; as after being presented before the image, they are taken to the shop, or place where these things are dis­posed of, and sold anew, and this is done repeatedly.

The general religious worship in these countries is that of attending mass, or as they say, hearing mass. This is a very proper way of expressing the thing, for it is hearing to the exclusion of understanding, in respect to the great bulk of the worshippers; the service being, as is well known, in the Latin tongue. Masses are said in the morning of every day in several, if not all, the churches, and they generally commence at a very early hour. The mass service lasts but a very short time and, after an interval, another begins.

On Sunday masses are more frequent than on week-days, and more persons attend them, though not a few go every day. The mass hearers, however, are chiefly of the female sex, for the great body of men disregard these services, attending only on great occa­sions. No sermon accompanies the mass, except at special seasons. In countries mostly or partly Protestant, this is otherwise, and sermons are, I believe, common. By this, we see how much a Roman Catholic country would be benefited by toleration, and allowing Protestants among them.

During the morning hours, on the Sunday, most of those who possess a religious feeling attend mass. Meanwhile all the shops and the public markets are open. In the afternoon, all is recreation and diversion. The bullfight and the theatre are always in action on the Sunday afternoon and evening.

The male portion of the population seldom, as was noticed, attend the ordinary religious services. Thus far they are negative as to religion. But they go beyond this, and many have passed into a disbelief of Christianity altogether. One can hardly wonder at this. An inquiring mind, emancipated from super­stition, and beholding the worse than nonsense and silliness of the general religions worship and practices, is very likely to cast off, and to hold in contempt, the whole of what he sees. This, therefore, is the case with many, and the evil is no doubt increasing.

How desirable is it, under these circumstances, to bring under the attention of persons in this predica­ment the Holy Scriptures, that in them may be seen what the Christian religion is in its true nature and simplicity. There are not a few, it is believed, in the countries in question, who feeling dissatisfied and disgusted with what they see are disposed to enquire into the truth of this great subject, under an unwillingness to throw off all religion.

Morals should next be noticed. Marriage virtues are in a low state. The too common practice of hus­bands frequenting the coffee-houses, and spending their evenings there, instead of in their families, is very unfavourable to domestic virtue and happiness. I have made inquiries of parties well informed as to female married virtue, and the information I received was, that dividing the community into four classes—the upper, the middle, the lower, and the Indians-—we should have of delinquencies, in the first class, the greater part; in the second, one-third, in the third next to all, as in the first; and in the fourth, all, with other and great irregularities allied to that subject, This information I had from a priest, and information from other quarters did not better things.

This subject, and another analogous to it, forms perhaps one of the best touchstones in regard to general morals, and the influence, or want of it, of real religion in any given place.

In regard to the priests, they are all celibates, by statute and profession; but the reality, it is to be feared, is the exception, not the rule. In many cases, there is no effort at concealment in regard to a mistress, though the party is styled a niece, or by some other colouring term. I have talked with some of those who were acting in this way, and who justified it on the score, that they had been brought into this bondage without their consent in early life. They showed, also, in defence, the injustice and unscripturalness of the rule they were under. I have rallied them closely on these occasions, as to their sworn profession to celi­bacy, as a part of their system, which publicly they held, and that it must be wrong to act so, even though they considered themselves virtually married (which several do), as long as they continued in their present system. They have pleaded that they could not get out of it, and have expressed an earnest desire to have full toleration, and Protestantism established in the place, that they might be at liberty to leave the Church and its bondages.

But there is another shade of guilt in this line, and one which meets at times with its retribution. A case of this nature may be related. The prior or chief of one of the many monasteries in a certain large city, was found lying in his own bed one morning, with evident marks of his having been murdered in the night. There was some stir for a few days in the examination of the domestics of the monastery, and more particularly one of them to whom the crime was, by suspicion or management, charged. But proceedings did not go far; all was soon quashed, and it was generally understood that the prior bad been murdered, not in his own bed, but in another bed, where he ought not to have been, and from which he was forthwith conveyed to his own, where in the morning he was found.

A characteristic vice of these countries is gambling. This is carried on to a very great and most injurious extent. Those quite free from it are not numerous, yet there are some; whilst those much addicted to it are many. Gambling is practised chiefly, and perhaps in its worst way as to extent, without any accompaniment, and purely for its own sake. But on other occasions, it is accompanied with other circumstances, in which chances are concerned.

Cockfighting is one of these accompaniments, not to mention others, which might be enumerated. Here we have cruelty joined with the vice. These scenes of cockfighting are very frequent, and all attend them, and seem to enjoy them. In an inn, where I was lodging for some time during a festival period, the court was filled, Sunday after Sunday, for the greater part of the day with a dense mass of people, including all the higher public authorities. I should think, cock-fighting might properly enough be put into the Romanists’ coat of arms; for it is general among them, and is comparatively rare, I believe, with Protestants. A gentleman, who had travelled much, once told me, that he always knew whether be was in a Roman Catholic inn or place, by this test of cockfighting, or the sight or sound of cocks kept for this purpose. This gentleman was an impartial judge; for he was of neither party himself, nor professed any religion at all.

The awful vice, as I may well call it, of assassination is to be found in those countries, and so much so as to form another and an unhappy characteristic of them. They are not, however, all alike guilty in this. Two, I think, stand prominent in the evil, and these are Buenos Ayres and Guatemala. I well recollect that there were two assassinations in the former the first night after my landing, and the calculation was, in regard to that place, that there were two at least every week. The body of the murdered party was generally exhibited in the market place in the morning after the occurrence, with a plate on it to collect money to bury it. Personal quarrels, I understood, to be the principal causes of these assassinations. But robberies, and still more intrigues also, led to them.

The perpetrators of murder in this way, or any other, in most cases escaped capture or pursuit, and a case of capital punishment for this great crime was exceedingly rare. I, however, recollect one, and very distinctly, because of an accompanying circumstance, and this accompaniment shows the evil in its worst light as to public feeling, and with a class where it ought to be the greatest against this fearful, hateful vice. In Buenos Ayres, whilst I was there, a man was seized for murder, tried, condemned, and sentenced to be publicly executed—a circumstance that made all wonder. It was well known that this same man had committed three murders previous to the one for which he was con­demned, and this might partly be the cause of unusual measures with him. Great efforts were made to save from just punishment this horrid murderer, and among other measures a petition on his behalf was got up by the ladies, and was numerously signed by them. The Governor,  however, being a man of justice and firmness, refused every application, and the man was according executed. Rodriguez was the Governor's name, and it deserves to be mentioned.

Bull-baiting, already mentioned, is well known to be a favourite vice with Spaniards. This still is general over these quarters, and Sunday is the principal day when these exhibitions take place. Something here must be set down to the credit of Buenos Ayres, and as a counterpart to the last circumstance mentioned. When I arrived there, in 1818, I found the Bull Ring in the act of being demolished, and barracks were being built instead. In Mexico, on the contrary, in 1843, when I left it, bull-baiting was in all its glory as in former times, and these celebrations occurred on every Sunday without fail. They took place also on great festal occasions whether religious or civil. If I remem­ber right, about 150 bulls are killed annually at these fêtes in the capital alone, and I might add several men. A man being killed is reckoned no extraordinary cir­cumstance, or subject of wonder and concern.

Lotteries may well be reckoned among the vices of the people we are speaking of. They are very numerous, and are always before the public. The lower and lowest classes enter fully into these, and so do the middle class, and many of the upper. The most sacred names are sometimes given to these, and men in every direction are heard vociferating them through the streets. But no ear seems grated by them. This want of proper feeling is a proof of the deadness of the community to real religion. I well recollect the painful impression made in hearing one of these names so applied, not to mention others. It was, "Lotería del Divino Salvador," or Lottery of the Divine Saviour.

A similar debasement of taste and feeling is seen in the names of some of the streets. We see, for instance, "Calle de la Preciosa Sangre de Jesu Cristo," or the Precious Blood of Christ Street. This is the way they honour— this is the way they dishonour the Precious Blood of Christ!

The carnival  is celebrated in some of these quarters, with all its unseemly accompaniments, but in others there is little or nothing of the kind. Buenos Ayres, I think, is decidedly the worst I have observed on this score.

In regard to morals generally, I think it may be said, that Chili is superior to all the rest. This is probably owing in a great measure to the small number of slaves a this quarter, and also to the lesser intercourse with the Indians. In the southernmost parts of Chili the Indians are more numerous, and probably morals are therein a lower state. It is worthy of notice, that in regard to internal agitations and convulsions in these various countries, formerly connected with Spain, Chili has had the fewest, and its government now exhibits a better state than any of the others. These are natural and good consequences of the better moral stale of things there.

Some notice should be taken here of Public Justice, or Courts and Judges. Little can be said in a favour­able way on this subject. Much corruption and bribery prevail beyond a doubt; though, on the other hand, there are not wanting judges who fear God, and act righteously towards men in the cases which come before them. The state of Courts of Justice and Judges is another touchstone in nations as to morals, and the influences of true religion, or the want of them.

Government Offices and Public Functionaries should also have a passing observation. They will be found to resemble the Courts of Law, and the Officials there, and for the same causes, the scarcity of genuine religion, and of right moral feeling grounded on it. No revolution in matters of this sort has taken place in these new states. The olden state of things under the Spanish regime still continues. It is the political yoke of Spain alone that has been thrown off, and even that only in name, as the same sort of rule as in Spain is practised in most matters.

A general in the army, and the governor of one of the provinces in the largest of these states, once told me, that the Government having occasion to send a pretty large sum of money to a considerable distance,  in connexion with a treaty to be effected with the Indians, an inquiry was made who was the most to be depended on for this trust among the officers of superior standing. A long list was gone over, he said, and something was found against every one. At length they pitched, from necessity, on the least bad among them, and sent him off. A few weeks after they learned, that having got onward about half way, he entered into gambling, and lost all the money.

Several things have been said in the preceding state­ments of an unfavourable nature, in regard to the religion and morals prevailing over the extended regions enumerated. Things there, however, are not all of this sort; and some circumstances will now be related of a contrary nature, and to be placed to the credit of the people in question.

There are many, it may well be said, in the various ranks of life, who have a high moral standing, and many too, I may add, who possess strong religious feelings influencing their conduct. The general courtesy of the Spanish character is a noble trait, and here they may be said to excel us. Complimentary manners may, it is true, be carried too far, and no doubt but this is frequently done by these people to the injury of sincerity. Yet still courteousness is an important feature in true civilization, good manners, and real kindness.

Three instances will here be given of persons in the lower walks of life acting respectively under the influ­ences of conscientious religious feeling, honesty, and honourableness.

The first is in respect to a market woman in the city of Mexico. After the writer had made some purchases of this individual, and was returning home, he was followed by her, and on reaching him, she said, she had found that he had paid her too much for what he had bought, and she returned the overplus, observing, that she could not keep the money, and have her soul condemned.

The next case is one of honesty, and is to the credit of more persons than one. The very last house in Spanish Columbia,[2] in which the writer lodged, was on the bank of the River Hondo, which separates Yucatan from the British settlement of Belize. Whilst waiting for a conveyance down the river, a man belonging to one of the boats plying there, came into the house in a high state of fever, there was no spare bed for him, and the writer parted with his own on his behalf. This was a very imperfect bed, and, besides other defects and faults, it wanted a pillow. To supply this essential article, a parcel containing purchases made in Yucatan of the native cotton manufactures, was put in. In the hurry of getting ready and leaving that house, this parcel, being out of sight, was forgotten and left behind. In Belize some weeks after, a verbal message, with a description of the parcel, was given to a boatman, and some remuneration was promised him if he should bring it. This individual found the parcel at the house all safe, and not embezzled and concealed, as one might have feared. It was given to the boatman, who carried it to Belize, on his next return, some weeks afterwards, and was there delivered to a gentleman appointed to receive it, after the writer had left the settlement. It was forwarded to him in England, and came safely into his hands.

An instance of honourable conduct will now be narrated, accompanied by two foils to show it to more advantage.

The post office mode in Mexico, as also elsewhere in the countries we are treating of, is, that all the letters arriving from a given quarter are, on the arrival of the post, itemed down on a list, with the several addresses in alphabetical order, according to the Christian names, and over against each name is a number. This list is hung up in a convenient place on the premises, and all go there, and search it for their letters. On finding the name, the number opposite is mentioned at the window, and the letter is delivered.  But English names are not a little troublesome to the post-office officials there,  and no wonder, considering the way we sometimes or rather frequently write. One of my letters in this list was written Tames for James, and it came into the hands of a person whose name was Tunes. He opened it, but finding he could make nothing of its English, he saw his mistake. Without delay be inquired and inquired until be found me out, and brought the letter and delivered it, stating the circumstances of the case, and saying he could not rest till he had found me, nor would he intrust the letter to another, but wished himself to see it safe in my hands. This was a journeyman baker.

And now for the two foils. Another letter of mine into the hands of a United States man, of the name of Johnston, who, from the sort of similarity in our names, thought perhaps the post-office clerk might have made a mistake in the writing. When he got the letter, however, he could not help seeing that it was not for him. But instead of seeking me out, like this honourable Mexican, he gave it to an Englishman who kept a shop there, who about ten days afterwards, and when the packet was gone that should have carried back the answer,  as I happened to be passing his door, called me in to see a letter which be said might be for me. Honour to whom honour is due, and so also dishonour, be the nation or face what it may. The Mexican to here the advantage greatly of our own countryman, and of the citizen of the West.

Evangelical Christendom I, June 1847: 187-190.

III

Government formerly kept in their own hands by Europeans—Now open to all classes—religious character of the priests—Education—Digression on English orthography—Language spoken—Desire for English colonization in South Columbia.

In all the countries under our consideration, the white, or European race, has held the rule, and all the other classes and races were debarred, if not by statute, at least by practice, from sharing in it, except in very inferior positions. The European race consisted of two divisions; namely, those born in Europe, and the issue of these, born in the colonies, who were called Creoles. Not only was the rule in the hands of the European race as stated above, but further, it was confined to the European division of it, and the Creoles were nearly as much excluded as were the Indians, This was in colonial times. All the great offices, and most of the lesser ones also, were occupied by Europeans. This circumstance, and some others combined with it, led to great antipathies, dislikes, and even hatreds, between these two divisions of the European race. The partiality here noticed, as to public offices,  was not only unjust, it was bad policy also. Retribution followed in due time; for the heart-burnings produced by it contributed greatly to the revolutionizing of the colonies. The Mother Country was thus visited with retribution; and farther, it was visited on the Europeans themselves living in the colonies; for, on the de­claration of independence, the Europeans were very hardly treated inmost cases, sad suffered expulsion in various parts.

The revolution effected changes in this policy, as might have been expected. Still, however, the European race rules, but the Creoles now hold offices to the exclusion of the Europeans, as before they were held by the latter to the exclusion of the former. Since the revolution, too, the  Indians have come in for a share, though a very slender one, as to public offices. There are, however, no constitutional hindrances against any class, or race, or colour; and we may hope that edu­cation, and time, and abilities, will bring things gra­dually to their natural and proper bearings among the various races and mixtures inhabiting these extended territories. It is curious to see how the southern division of Columbia, in this wise policy, has got the start, and  so decidedly, of its northern neighbour; and it is worth the attention of the philosopher to find out the cause of this.

In judging of the religious standing of the priests, we must consider them, in the first place, as respects their own system; afterwards we may weigh the system itself. It is said that, in Spain, not a few of the priests are secretly, if not more than secretly, infidel in their views. I should not consider this to be the case in the countries in question. I have had extensive intercourse with the priests there, and I might say, confidentially, (for a foreigner will get their mind more in some things than their own countrymen), and very few have I found to make avowal of infidelity. Against celibacy, and some other parts of their system, I have heard them speak freely, and many of them I consider to be liberal and superior men.

A fair proportion of the priests in those parts may be considered moral and devout men. Their devoutness is to be considered in respect to their own system. Such may be styled good Catholics, or rather Romanists. It is a question, and a very grave one, whether a real and true Roman Catholic, believing and understanding all that system, can be considered a true member of the kingdom of God, whose sins are for­given, and who is sealed by the Spirit unto everlasting life. Sins can be forgiven only through faith in the blood of Christ, and this faith, and trust, and hope in the merits of Christ, must be to the exclusion of dependence on aught else whatever. It is to the one sacrifice made for us on Calvary, that we look. On this atonement we rest, as complete and satisfactory to “Him with whom we have to do.” But the true Romanist believes that the mass is a true propitiation for sin, separate and distinct from the one offering of Christ. This faith of his, therefore, in the mass, would seem to declare the non-completeness of the atonement once offered for us on Calvary.

Again, the Romanist believes in, and avails himself of, many intercessors, and chiefly in the Virgin Mary. Is not this to set aside the one and only Mediator for sinners? And further, is not the belief in, and application to, these various divinities, a virtual denial of the one living and true God? It is true, they say in theory, though their practice is not in accordance with it, that these divinities are inferior to God; but so did the Polytheists rank their demons, or divinities, as inferior to Jupiter, the father of gods and men. Yet, notwithstanding this, they were real polytheists, and thus, by being so, denied the one and only God. If the Virgin Mary, the Saints, and the Angels, can hear prayers everywhere offered, at one and the same time, there must be divinity in them, and hence such prayers declare the belief of the worshippers to be in favour of polytheism, which involves the denial of our only Lord and God.

On another point of the Romanist’s faith, we may say, that if it is believed that a man can not only do all he should do, and perfectly in the sight of God, and even more, too, than this, so as to have his supereroga­tory works set down to the account of others, does not such a belief undermine the doctrine of our corrupt and sinful nature and ways, even under the greatest measure of grace in this world bestowed? Those who believe a man can live in perfect sinlessness, and even perform works of supererogation, surely deny a great point in the Christian faith.

Other points of the Romanist's doctrines might be examined after this same manner, and would equally be found unscriptural and dangerous.

But there are Romanists, who, happily, I may well say, are ignorant of these dogmas, or who reject them in their faith and worship, and who look to, and trust in, only one God, one Mediator, and one Sacrifice. These are true members of Christ, and fellow-citizens with all the household of faith. I have met with cases, on the one hand, of real ignorance of some of the worst of these evils; and on the other, of disbelief in them, that I could not well have believed, but from personal practical knowledge. We would fain hope that the number of such is considerable in the countries in question, and in others elsewhere, though still living in this communion. We would, however, say to all such, and loudly, “Come out of her, my people, that ye be not partakers of her sins, and that ye receive not of her plagues.”

The next thing in these countries to which we turn our attention, is Education; and this we shall divide into two parts—namely, academical and elementary, commencing with the first.

In all the capital cities of these newly-constituted nations, and also in most of the large towns, there are colleges established. These are not the creations of the new states, but seminaries which existed there pre­viously, during colonial times, in several of them, however, if not in most, the system of instruction has been improved, and in some of them very considerably.

The former practice in all these colleges was that of studying through the medium of the Latin language; and so it was, also, at no very remote period, amongst ourselves. Some fragments of this mode we still have remaining in our seminaries, and serving as memorials of what was once the general system. Innovations on this plan, more or less, may now be found in nearly all the colleges of these new countries. In some they are extensive, yet still the old practice remains as the most general. Modern light, however, and modern plans of study, have fairly entered these quarters, and improve­ments are steadily going forward.

At the first college exhibition which I witnessed in those parts, which was in Buenos Ayres, in the year 1818, what I saw and heard, if it did not exactly cor­respond with the display exhibited by Gil Blas and his fellow-students, it at least brought up at once before my mind the passage in which these academicians are described as disputing and wrangling. "The passage is as follows:—“Il falloit nous voir disputer. Quels gestes! quelles grimaces! quelles contorsions! Nos yeux etoient pleins de fureur, et nos bouches écumantes. On nous devoit plutôt prendre pour des possédés que pour des philosophes.” I well recollect, that one of the young men, by way of a thorough negative, and non-admission of his opponent's argument, repeated the long Spanish negative, ninguno, with its three syllables, six times over; three times in most rapid succession; a little pause, then twice quickly; and after another little breathing, once, with a most determinate tone. In another disputation in these same Argentine provinces, a denial was given in the following repetitions: — “No Señor Doctor, no Señor Doctor, no Señor Doctor.”

In Mexico, in 1843, I had the pleasure of witnessing the mode and practice of study in what I consider the best college in that city and country, having been very kindly conducted through the whole establishment by the rector, and afterwards I attended the public exhi­bition of the same college.  Comparing what I thus witnessed in 1818 and in 1843, I should say, the improvements in academic studies have been very con­siderable. The exhibitions in Mexico would have done honour, perhaps, to any country in Europe, as to the plans and performances.

In the college establishments we are speaking of, edu­cation is in most cases gratuitous, and all who choose may attend the several courses of instruction, free of ex­pense, on conforming themselves to the rules laid down. This is very convenient for those who reside in the place where the College is, and many avail themselves of the advantage. Hence it is that not an inconsiderable number of the better classes receive a college education; and the effects of this are well exhibited on public occasions, in the intelligence and oratory of the speakers.

There is also, in all these seminaries, a considerable number of resident students, who live within the establishment, and pay a certain rate, generally very moderate, on the score only of board and lodging.

Some of the establishments are for ecclesiastics alone, and these, it may be said, have undergone the fewest changes in the shape of improvement. In not one of these Ecclesiastical Seminaries, I believe, as yet, is there a chair for either Greek or Hebrew. The want, however, in these studies is beginning to be perceived, and remedies are talked of, and most likely before long some advancement in this line will take place.

In the general colleges, also, the Latin is the only one of the ancient languages that is taught, with the following exception, as far as I am informed. In Buenos Ayres, some years ago, a Professor was ap­pointed for Greek, and he was an American—that is, of the United States. The want of persons qualified to instruct in Greek is one of the causes why professor­ships have not been set up in these parts before now. The study of this language is still very scanty, it is be­lieved, in Spain, and hence the lack of professors. Foreigners instructed in this tongue, and of course in Spanish also, would most probably meet with en­couragement as professors in these colleges. Nor, do I believe, would Protestants be objected to in this line, and this partly through true liberality of feeling, and partly from necessity. Even in the Ecclesiastical Seminaries such persons would, I think, be allowed. Both Greek and Hebrew might thus be introduced into these colleges, and with great advantage, not merely as to general learning, but also in favour of genuine liberality. I have found some ecclesiastical students very anxious about these studies, and the impulse on­wards will most probably come from them rather this from their superiors.

Drawing, in not a few of these colleges, is a distinct and formal study, and in this they undoubtedly excel us in their general college practice. Nor is this one of the improvements consequent on the revolution of these countries, and the breaking in of the advanced lights of Europe; but it has been a distinct branch of study for a long period. Music also is introduced into some of these establishments, and is taught, both in theory and practice, with great formality, in both its branches, vocal and instrumental.

In the principal colleges, the French language is taught, and in a very few there are chairs for our English tongue. The study of French is of long standing, and a considerable number are pretty conversant with this language, I fear this is not to the advantage, but rather to the hurt of those countries, from the extensive reading of infidel and immoral works from the presses of France.

The study of our English tongue is recent, and dates only, I believe, from the revolution. In favour of our language there is a growing feeling, partly from com­mercial intercourse with the two great nations speaking that tongue; and partly, too, from an impression of the superior value of English works in most departments of literature.

A great obstacle, however, is met with as to the learning of English, and this forms a great hindrance to its study in those quarters, as well as elsewhere. This hindrance is, what I may well call, the wretched orthography we have. We are so accustomed to it ourselves that we have no sense generally of our unsightliness in this particular. Others see it, however—even every foreigner who attempts to study our tongue. It is true, the French language is bad in its orthography, as well as our English; but there is regularity in its badness, so that it can soon be mastered. On the other hand, our irregularities in the pronunciation of our vowels and diphthongs, and even some of our consonants, is without rule, I might say, and endless. Often have I wished to see something done in the improvement of our orthography, for our own good and credit; but much more have I wished it in refer­ence to the study of our tongue in foreign nations. And there is something more than an English feeling in this, as I believe an extended knowledge of our lan­guage would much advance the great cause of the world's improvement in every line.

I cannot help taking notice here of one attempt towards a change for the better in our orthography, and one of chance, not purpose. This was began, and was for some time exclusively practised among our Angles in the West. This change is just entering among ourselves, and hence the necessity of drawing attention to it. It consists in dropping: the u in honour, and such like words. Now, it is curious enough to observe the awkwardness manifested in this pseudo amendment; for instead of leaving out the u, it is the o we should leave out. The u here has the sound of  u in but, and not that of the o in the first syllable of honour, which is its own proper and general short sound.

The Spaniards, more than any other foreigners, feel this confusion of our sounds, inasmuch as their own noble language is a perfect contrast to ours on this score. Very great praise is due to the Spanish Academy for most wisely, and perseveringly conducting the improvement of the national tongue, in point of its orthography, as well as otherwise. And this merit of this learned body deserves the more to be mentioned, as it is but little known. The Academy suggested alterations and improvements, showing the grounds on which they rested them. This done, they left their hints with the public to adopt them or not, as they might choose; and when any of them were fairly adopted, they were incorporated by the Academy as the standard mode of use.

We want much a Royal English Academy, to do the same thing among ourselves: and I trust such an academy, and such attempts as are here indicated, will be commenced in the present reign. Such a Foundation would be worthy of our present Sovereign, and would give her, beside other good claims to it, an everlasting English remembrance.

Patriotism, and the love and the good of other nations, should lead as to remove every hindrance that exists to the study of our language. The French have been more attentive to their own honour in this point than we have been, and a witness we have of this, among other testimonies, in the recent establishment of a French Academy or Institute in Greece. This is a fair object of national ambition. Under Mr. Canning's administration, I understand, and by his direction, our Foreign Correspondence for the very first time was written in our own English tongue, instead of—shall I say it?—in French.

This subject of the increased study of our rich English tongue abroad among foreign nations, is one not unworthy of the attention of the Evangelical Alliance.

Returning to our South Columbia, and to our colleges there, I would observe, that the medical studies in that quarter have partaken, and to a considerable extent in some parts, of the improvements now going forward. In Mexico, at the present time, there are courses given in the various branches of this department of study, which do honour to the country, and might stand a good comparison with European establishments. An ample supply of subjects for anatomical lectures and practice, is obtained from the large public hospital, without hindrance or offence.

It may be proper here to treat a little of the general language spoken over Spanish Columbia. As might be expected, it is the Spanish tongue that prevails over these extensive regions. This is the language of all the whites, and I may say, too, of all the blacks, for here white and black meet; and it was natural that the blacks should adopt the language of their masters, with whom they were in intercourse. There is a circumstance I have observed, in regard to the manner in which the Spanish slaves spoke the Spanish language, which deserves to be mentioned, and it does honour to the Spanish character. The circumstance is this, that Spanish slaves speak the Spanish wonderfully well, and better than English slaves speak English; and I may add, too, than French slaves speak French. I have had pretty fair means of judging in regard to this, having spent seven years in the West Indies, and been not only in the English islands, but also in those under France at the present time, and likewise in those formerly, not now, under it, where their language remains.

There is a good reason for this, and it is, that the Spanish master was more accessible to the slave, and hence the slave had more confidence and intercourse with his master. Through this greater communication the language was more fully acquired. I have always been able to understand a Spanish slave speaking Spanish, better than I could understand an English slave speaking English. The treatment of the slave by the Spaniard is highly creditable to him, compared with the English and French. The easy, confidential, and, I might add, affectionate manner in which the Spanish slaves addressed their masters and mistresses, was a very pleasing circumstance, and calculated to fix the attention of any one loving his like, like man, whether of like colour or not.

The Island of Cuba, in the West Indies, is Spanish, and so is Puerto Rico. I fear I must make an excep­tion to the mild treatment of the slaves, of these two islands; but must add that many of the planters there are foreigners—English, French, and Americans.

The large body of Indians in Spanish Columbia, par­ticularly in Mexico and Peru, was calculated to affect the Spanish language. It has, however, done it very little, and that only in a few places. The quarter, where I have most remarked it, is in the neighbourhood of Quito. There I found several of the fine sounding Spanish words abridged, as it were, and with accents changed to other syllables. It was rather amusing to hear these changes. I do not recollect any other large city where the language was affected as in Quito; and its insulated state, far from other large towns, and filled with Indians, and surrounded entirely by them, accounts for this anomaly.

In all these regions the great body of the Indians speak their own native tongues, but all those who are in the habit of attending the markets in large towns understand Spanish also, and speak it tolerably. They have the cunning, however, of affecting not to know it when they think any advantage can be gained by this ignorance.

It is natural to inquire in regard to the style or manner in which the Spanish language is spoken by the Creole Spaniards. It may be said, roundly, to be good Spanish, and such as is to be met with generally over Spain. It differs from the language of Madrid in one thing alone, which is in the pronunciation of the c soft, and z which in Spanish are exactly the same. All over Spanish Columbia these two letters are pronounced like s. In Madrid they are pronounced so as to emit a sound like our th as heard in their, with something of the s at the commencement. Out of Castile, the Colombian mode of pronouncing these letters is, I believe, common enough.

It is a very advantageous circumstance that one language is so extensively spoken over these vast regions of the New World. In Brazil the Portuguese language prevails, which is a dialect of the Spanish; but it is to a Spaniard most grating and disagreeable. The only other language of the New World is our English. Those who speak it are already about twenty-one millions, whilst those who speak Spanish and Portuguese, making an ample allowance for the number of Indians who can speak them, cannot exceed ten millions. Thus, we see that already our tongue is the chief language of the Great Western World. But the English lan­guage is progressing manifestly at present, in point of the numbers who speak it; whilst those who speak the other two are stationary, or nearly so, and the same may be said also of the Indian languages. Events of the present hour, through most unjustifiable means, are likely to extend, territorially, the use of tongue. I rejoice in its extension, but I should like to see it done by better means. I think, with proper plans and efforts, our language might become the only one over all the two Western Continents.

We have in these islands an increase in our population yearly of almost 400,000. Could one fourth of this increase be conveyed, from year to year, to the South Columbian regions—to those almost immeasurable and most fertile territories, and be settled all over them, the natural increase on the one hand, and the increasing numbers of the emigrants yearly, together with the superior influence of the new people, would in a comparatively short time make the whole face of these regions English. Easy and extensive arrangements might be made with all the Governments in those quarters, for lands, and also privileges; for all of them are very desirous of increasing their populations and especially with advanced Europeans. Many and many a time, in travelling over these extensive quarters, and observing the thinness of the population, and the richness of the soil, together with the grand highways which the Creator has made in the noble and extensive navigable rivers, open all the year; often in thus contemplating and ruminating have I wished, and sighed, for Britons to colonise these fields; as this would be so advantageous both to these countries and to the emigrants. I have never ceased to cherish this wish, nor can I. But the main part of my desire has been to form Christian colonies in those quarters, consisting of emigrants possessing real religion, that they might form missionary establishments; and whilst by industry they would be providing for themselves, they might at the same time greatly contribute to the enlightenment and general welfare of all the countries in which they should be settled. Perhaps the general congregating of genuine Christians together in the Evangelical Alliance may afford facilities for the objects I have here expressed.

Evangelical Christendom Vol 1, August 1847, 251-254.

IV

Elementary education: Buenos Ayres: Writer appointed Director of Public Schools—Introduces the British system—Scripture lessons printed by Government—Monks of St. Francis encourage the schools—Established by Authority in Monte Video—In Chili—In Mendoza and St. Juan—In Peru—Progress interrupted by war—Journey home—Schools visited in route—Return to Mexico—Lancasterian Society formed there—Liberality of the authorities—General impression—Subsequent progress.

In the present article the writer designs to give some account of the state of Elementary Education in the countries under review. He regrets, however, that it must necessarily be much briefer and more imperfect than he could have wished, as must also his following papers. These will relate to the circulation of the Scriptures—the condition and prospects of the Indians —the state of Protestantism as exhibited in the foreign residents—and the means proper to be used for the benefit of these countries. But circumstances have occurred which hinder him from the full execution of what he had designed on these several topics. Once more, and for the fourth time, he is about to leave his native land in the service of the kingdom of God; and the little time now left before he sets off on his journey into Spain, makes it impossible for him to write so much at large as he originally meant.

The first topic, then, that comes before us is, Elementary Education. Every one would expect that this should be in a low condition, owing to a combination of unfavourable circumstances. This was the view that the writer took, and he confesses that he was agreeably surprised to find that more had been done in this matter than he had supposed. He found a goodly number of elementary schools in action, and learned also that more persons could read than the numbers taught in schools, the rest being instructed in the do­mestic circle. This was in Buenos Ayres.

One of the first things that fixed the attention of the writer in the way of usefulness was in this line. He had formally studied, previous to leaving his native country, the system of education arranged by Mr. Joseph Lancaster, and pursued by the British and Foreign School Society in their establishment in the Borough Road. The first difficulty he had to overcome in these foreign regions was the acquirement of the Spanish language. When he had obtained some knowledge of this, he made proposals to the public authorities to put the schools of the country on this improved plan. His proposals obtained a favourable reception, and he was appointed to the office of Director of the Public Schools, with the purpose of arranging the whole of them ac­cording to this system.

On commencing his work, he found a serious diffi­culty standing in his way, which was the general use of lessons in the schools, such as were not calculated to promote the objects which took him to those quarters, but the contrary. How to get these lessons removed, and to have others substituted in their place, was a matter both of doubt and difficulty. After much consideration on the subject, and prayer to God for direction, he set to work and extracted passages from the Old Testament, and from the New, such as he thought the most adapted for the instruction of children in the truths and the virtues of the Christian religion. On presenting these to the Government, under which he was acting, an order was given to have them printed at the Government printing-office, at the public expense, and that forthwith they should be introduced into the schools. All this was accordingly done, and it exhibited a striking instance of liberality worthy of being men­tioned in honour of the place and parties, and as ex­hibited by a Roman Catholic Government and commu­nity towards a Protestant and a foreigner.

The same degree of liberality was shown on the opening of the first school by an individual in authority, when the only direction given to the writer was, that he should teach liberal principles, and by this was meant principles not opposed to religion, but to narrowness in religion.

The monks of St. Francis encouraged these schools by granting a room on their premises in which to com­mence the new plan; and they used frequently to look in to see how we were getting on, and always expressed themselves well pleased with all, including the new, true, and Scripture lessons introduced.

The writer went down from Buenos Ayres to Monte Video, by special invitation from parties in autho­rity, with the view of establishing the same system there. That place was then under Portuguese or Brazilian rule. The ecclesiastic of first authority in that city took a lively interest In this work, and arrangements were made with him and others in power for setting on foot the new schools as soon as a competent teacher could be sent to them. Such a one was in due time sent, and the new system was begun there.

The fame of these new schools not only spread to Monte Video, but also across the continent to Chili, and the envoy of that Government in Buenos Ayres was commissioned to treat with the writer, desiring him to pass over to that country under gratifying assurances.

To that country he passed in due time, round Cape Horn, then a little frequented route, but now become more common. His passage was paid by the Chilian Government, and on his landing he was warmly wel­comed. Here, as in Buenos Ayres, the new and Scripture lessons were printed by Government, and introduced into use, and schools were established.

After about a year's stay there, he crossed the Andes and visited the towns of Mendoza and St. John (San Juan), where arrangements were made for commencing schools on the new plan, and copies of the Scripture lessons were left sufficient for a commencement.

Soon after he had re-crossed the Andes into Chili, Peru threw off the Spanish yoke, and in a brief space after this event, the writer received an invitation at once friendly and pressing, begging he would repair without delay to Lima, the capital, to take charge of the public schools, and to form them on the improved plan. As soon as his engagements permitted, he sailed for Peru, where, on his arrival, his reception was of a more gratifying character still than in the two countries previously visited. General San Martin, the conqueror of the country, and its real, though not nominal king at the time, showed a most friendly and marked atten­tion to the writer, and, in conjunction with his cabinet, did everything to facilitate the introduction of the new system into the country. Here again, and for the third time, and in the third country, the Scripture lessons were printed, under the auspices and at the expense of the Government, and introduced into the schools, without opposition, and with every encouragement, as in the two former instances. The only difference in respect to the three countries and three times of printing, was, that here a much larger number of copies were at once printed.

General Bolivar, when he came to Peru, showed the writer the same personal and public attention as his predecessor San Martin had done. And further, the Spanish General Monet, when he took the city of Lima, continued to him, and with encouragement, the stand­ing he had enjoyed under the preceding party, from which by force of arms he had wrested the city.

The hotness of the war at this time obliged the writer, notwithstanding the favour of the Spanish authorities, to leave the place, finding that no progress could be made.

He then pursued his way northward, by sea, to Gua­yaquil, and then over land, crossing the western ridge or cordillera of the Andes, passing along in the splendid vale between the two mighty Andesian chains, then crossing the eastern chain, and descending into the vale of the River Magdalena; then sailing down that river, with a digression to Bogota, he arrived at Carthagena, whence he sailed for Jamaica and England.

On the route here mentioned, he inquired into the state of education, and found there was an impulse given to this important work, and an advancement made, under the new national state of things, brought about by the political revolution recently effected.

In the neighbourhood of Quito, in a village nearly under the equator, the writer was gratified to see the zeal for education manifesting itself in the use of the broad and thick leaf of the American agave, or aloe, for writing on, in the lack of slates and paper.

In Popayan, a school was found established on the monitorial plan, and in Bogota, the capital of the country, schools were going on, and means had been used by the Government to extend the new system over the provinces.

The writer, after his visit to England, went out to Mexico. There, also, he found the improved plan in operation. A Lancasterian Society was formed there, by voluntary subscription. The Government gave every encouragement to this institution, and made it, in fact, its board for extending education over the country. In this Government Board of Education, the writer had con­ferred on him the honour of being a member. This cir­cumstance gave him a good opportunity of witnessing the general interest felt for promoting education, both on the part of the Government and of the community.

The preceding is a rapid sketch of the state and progress of elementary education in the countries under review. It has been painful to the writer to make it so brief; as he finds himself compelled to do less honour to those countries than they deserve in regard to their ef­forts in favour of popular education. He regrets also, that he cannot show more fully by a detail of circum­stances, the personal confidence and attention he received, and for which he feels grateful to God, who gave him such favour with strangers; and he feels also attached to those who so kindly received and befriended him.

One circumstance he will relate (and he is sorry he has not room for more) in respect to this confidential treatment, and in favour of the liberality of the au­thorities and others in those countries.

The circumstance is this:—In each of the three countries first mentioned—namely, Buenos Ayres, Chili, and Peru, the writer had the appointment conferred on him, of Director of the Public Schools. These countries are entirely Roman Catholic in their Government and whole population; yet during all the time he held this situation, he was treated with all liberality and con­fidence, and was never once asked whether he was a Roman Catholic or a Protestant.

The general impression made on the writer's mind, by a long residence, with ample intercourse and oppor­tunities of judging, as to the public feeling on the great subject of general education, he will here give in an extract, from a letter addressed to the British and Foreign School Society, after the seven years he had passed in the several countries on the continent of South America. It is as follows:—

"In reviewing the state and progress of education in South America, there is undoubtedly much that is calculated to gratify and to cheer the hearts of those who delight in the progress of knowledge, and in the welfare of man. Besides the pleasure that arises from seeing what has actually been done in the few years in which these new states have enjoyed the boon of liberty, there is yet more to cheer us in contemplating the general feeling which pervades the country upon the important subject of education. During my seven years’ residence in that country, I have had intercourse with all classes of society there, and through repeated conversations and otherwise, have come, I think, to understand what are the actual feelings and desires of the people upon this point. I have no hesitation in saying that the public voice is decidedly in favour of UNIVERSAL EDUCATION.  I never heard even once, what is still to be heard elsewhere, ‘that the poor should not be taught’.  The very opposite feeling most undoubtedly exists, and prevails among the clergy and the laity, the governors and the governed. On a survey, therefore, of the whole scene, and in looking into futurity, the brightest views may, I think, be entertained as to the progress and best interests of man in that large and interesting continent; and from this view of things, I am sure none will derive more real gratification than the Committee of the British and Foreign School Society.”

This extract is made from a small duodecimo volume of  “Letters on the Moral and Religious State of South America” which the writer published in 1827; and to this volume he refers those readers who wish for fuller information on the subject under review, and which here, from want of time, he has not been able to dwell upon. Some copies of this work are still to be had at the publishers’, Messrs. Nisbet and Co., Berners-street, and at Mr. Brown’s, Old-street.

Twenty-one years have elapsed since the extract here given was written. During all that time the countries in question have been politically agitated, and one feels doubtful of the progress anticipated. We must not think, however, that no progress has been made. Knowledge is power in many ways, and advance­ment is no doubt being made under these agitations.

The writer is not able to state the progress subsequently made in elementary education in those several countries, and its present state; but in regard to one of them he can, from a letter received by him from Peru, on the 10th June last. This letter is from the very worthy priest, a lover of education and the Bible, who was associated with the writer in conducting edu­cation in Peru and of whom honourable and deserved mention is made in the letter from which the above extract is taken, as contained in the volume noticed. The letter is dated in Lima, on the 11th. of April of the present year. He says :—

“In addition to my other duties, I have the general direction of all the establishments of elementary in­struction. These establishments have multiplied very much, both for boys and girls. When you were here, we had no other establishment but the one in the convent of St. Thomas. That school still goes on well; but now we have more than thirty, all in good condition. As to public schools for girls, we had then none; but after you were gone, I set up one in the premises of my own establishment, and then another in the Orphan Asylum. After my example, colleges and schools were established for the youth of both sexes, so that now, as I have said, they exceed thirty in number; and in the country at large a similar progress is being made.”

With this extract from the letter of his my esteemed friend and former coadjutor, the writer concludes what he has to say on the subject of elementary education in Spanish America.

Evangelical Christendom Vol 1, September 1847: 287-288.

 V

Circulation of the Scriptures: Two translations in Spanish— Buenos Ayres—Chili—Peru— Guayaquil: Providential supply of New Testaments—Cross the Western Andes: Driven by a storm to a convent where the monks buy the Bible—Quito—Cross the Eastern Andes to Bogota:  Bible Society formed there—Embark for England at Carthagena—Return to Mexico—Journey into the interior—Mexico   again after twelve years: Bible for the first time printed there in a new version—Venezuela.

Our next subject is that of the circulation of the Holy Scriptures in those lands sitting in darkness for want of this heavenly light. Circumscribed as have been the notices on elementary education, they have exceeded their intended limits. A greater curb, therefore, must now be exercised, if possible, in treating on this and the three remaining subjects.

Two translations of the Bible have been made in Spain, and both by royal authority. They are published with ample annotations in many quarto volumes, and accompanied with the Latin text of the Vulgate, from which the translations are both made. These expensive works of course would come into few hands, and hence the general ignorance of the holy book of inspiration, in the mother country and in the colonies.

The opposition manifested in Roman Catholic countries to the diffusion of the Holy Scriptures, combined with the well-known jealousy of Spaniards in regard to foreigners, prevented the writer from taking with him a supply of the Scriptures on his first going out, and he chose rather to learn the state of things on the spot, previous to active operations. In Buenos Ayres, to which he first went, he was agreeably surprised to find a greater degree of liberality than he had anticipated. This induced him to write to the Bible Society, with which he had formed relations before leaving home, begging that a supply of the Scriptures might be sent. They came, but their admission into the country was not so certain as their arrival in the port. A priest was appointed by the Government to examine all books arriving, with power to prohibit those he disapproved of. Never will the writer forget that anxious moment when he presented his list to this priest, and awaited in prayer his yea or nay. His reply was yea and this “yea” formed an era for that place, and it may be said for the whole of that continent.

These copies of the Scriptures, were freely put into circulation by sale and otherwise, without any hindrances or objections on the part of the authorities, civil or ecclesiastical, and they were well received by the community at large, to whom the book was new, and acceptable on this ground at least,  and we may hope to some, on better grounds also. Other supplies were obtained, and had the same free reception and general circulation, without any obstruction being thrown in the way.

Into Chili, also, the Scriptures were admitted, and had a similar unobstructed circulation.

Peru also received readily the Word of God, and it had there a yet more extended circulation than in the two countries already mentioned.

Only the New Testament had been printed in the Spanish language when the writer went out, and during his abode in Buenos Ayres and Chili. This was owing to the non-encouragement which the Society had in regard to the circulation of the Scriptures in that tongue. When, however, it was seen how readily the Spanish colonies opened themselves to receive the Book of Revelation, the entire volume, containing both the Old and New Testaments, was printed.

The first supply of the entire Bible for that continent came to Peru. Five hundred Bibles came, and five hundred New Testaments. These were put into circulation, in a couple of days, and by sale. Such a flood of light was calculated to produce commotion in two parties, and for two distinct reasons. To those who loved dark­ness, the feeling was painful; but to those disposed to  enjoy light, the sensation was a pleasing one. This latter class, it is believed, was the more numerous of the two, grounded on a general wish for knowledge on the one hand, and we hope on better reasons by others, and these, perhaps, more numerous than we might suppose.

Collisions took place, but it was gratifying to ob­serve that the defenders of the circulation and use of the Scriptures were more in number and of more power than those unfavourable.

When the writer was forced out of Peru by the pressure of war, he went northward to Guayaquil and with the view before him of a long land journey, across the country to Carthagena, on the coast of the Caribbean sea, or rather as he should say, the Columbian Archipelago.

His leaving Peru, and his prospective land journey, were unexpected, and hence he was not supplied with the Scriptures as he would have been had he previously arranged his plan.  In the midst of regrets on this score he landed at Guayaquil, there, in the custom-house, whilst the examination of his luggage was taking place, he observed some cases, so like those he used to receive from the Bible Society, that he had the curiosity to inquire what they might contain, and to his surprise and delight, he learned that they contained New Testaments. These had been sent to Peru, but the hotness of the war prevented the landing of these cases, and the ship having to take in her cargo at Guayaquil, to that place they were taken and left, and thus this misfortune turned out to be a providential and happy circumstance. The writer’s connexion with the Bible Society being made known to the parties holding in charge those books, they were all put into his hands.

Thus providentially supplied, the writer hastened to put his treasure to use, and having little time to expend there, he was led to adopt a new plan, which both then and afterwards proved of great service to him. This was to advertise his sales by a public placard. His fears were, that he might excite the jealousy of the authorities, and thus defeat the object he had in view. God, however, who had so wondrously put this supply into his hands, soon dissipated all his fears, by a general and favourable reception of his books, on the part both of the people and the priests. Several hundreds of copies were sold, during the three days he remained there. Besides, so far from meeting with ecclesiastical opposition, the chief ecclesiastic of the place, expressed his thankfulness for the arrival of the Word of God, and for the favourable reception it had met with from the people at large. The same individual offered letters of introduction to the writer for places lying before him on his journey, which proved after­wards of the greatest service.

Thus encouraged, the writer started to cross the Western chain of the Andes; and on attaining the summit, say 16,000 feet high, he surveyed from his cold, snow-surrounded, and elevated position, the rich and fertile regions below. His cold and sterile position seemed to represent the moral state of those quarters; and the rich and fruitful climes below might figure the lux­uriant harvest that will be reaped when the Word of God, shall have fructified the country, and made it bring forth fruit.

Travelling along through the vale between the two mountain ridges, with the east and west chains of the Andes on his right and left, in the midst of the grandest scenery perhaps in the whole world, the writer was arrested in his progress by a great storm, and found himself accidentally lodged in a convent; the worst of all places, according to his imagination, for the success of his work. But God so disposed, that an ample sale of the Scriptures took place there, under the friendliest encouragement of the monks, who bought for themselves, encouraged others to buy, and entertained with most courteous hospitality the stranger who had brought them the Word of God.

In Quito, a city of some 60,000 inhabitants, within a few miles of the equator, the writer was received (in virtue of his letter of introduction from the Guayaquil ecclesiastic before mentioned) into the house of the Marquis of St. Joseph, the richest man in all that country. In his splendid house he was permitted, or rather courteously obliged, to open his sales; and hundreds of copies were disposed of, and messengers came from convents of monks and of nuns for goodly supplies for their respective establishments.

Having crossed the Eastern chain of the Andes in the neighbourhood of Popayan, descended into the vale of the River Magdalena, and risen afterwards to the heights of the city of Bogota, the writer found himself in the capital of what was then called Colombia, but previously, and now, New Granada.

The supplies of the Scriptures obtained in Guayaquil were all scattered like seed over very extensive and dark regions. How to turn his visit to the capital to the best account was now the writer's thought, and something new required to be done, as he had no copies of the Scriptures to dispose of. Thus circumstanced, he attempted, in hope against hope, to form a Bible Society. A public meeting, called by advertisement in the newspapers, was held in the splendid hall of the chief monastery, at which were present two of the Secretaries of State, the acting Archbishop, the clerical principals of the two colleges there, with other priests and monks, and a full attendance of the community of the city. A Bible Society was formed, and there were subscribed to it about 1,300 dollars, making, say, £260 sterling. The chief wonder among these wonders was, that the person who became Secretary to the Society, a priest and a monk, had formerly been, in that same place, the Secretary to the Inquisition.

Descending from the elevation of Bogota, of upwards of 8,000 feet, into the hot valley of the Magdalena (where the thermometer of Fahrenheit stood at 97½ in the heat of the day), he came to the end of his land journey at Carthagena, where he embarked for England, as previously stated.

In visiting Mexico afterwards, in the beginning of the year 1827, he went out, not as he did to Buenos Ayres, without any copies of the Scriptures, but, encouraged by his former success, with a supply of 10,000 copies of Bibles and Testaments. Twenty-four mules carried his forty-eight cases from the coast to the city of Mexico; and these formed a beautiful group or line, as the road permitted, winding and wending their way onwards, bearing the precious Word of God, unmolested, into the heart of this Roman Catholic country.

On arriving in the capital, the most public notifica­tion was given by the newspapers of the sale of the Scriptures, and a large number of copies was sold, and at full price of cost and carriage.

A journey was next undertaken into the interior, lying north-westwards, and the several large towns in that quarter were visited. Fourteen mules carried twenty-eight cases, when starting on this journey, and the whole were disposed of. Many interesting incidents occurred during this tour, but time and space forbid their being here inserted. Those who wish to obtain more extended notices respecting this and other Bible journeys made in Mexico, will find the same, in communications inserted in the Annual Reports of the British and Foreign Bible Society for the years 1828 to 1831.

Suffice it here to say, that, besides the 10,000 first taken out, several thousands of copies were afterwards sent to the same country and circulated in it, and that a sum of about £2,000 was received for Bibles and Testaments sold.

The writer left Mexico in 1830, and returned to it again in 1842, and remained there two years. Obstructions which he had experienced towards the close of his former mission, through clerical edicts, he found still operating to the hindrance of that rapid and general circulation of the Scriptures, which he at first met with. Still, however, in the face of these edicts, both in the booksellers’ shops and by hawkers in the streets of the capital, the Scriptures were publicly sold.

These very hindrances, moreover, had been overruled for good, inasmuch as they had led, with other cir­cumstances, to the printing of an edition of the Bible in the country itself. This was the first Bible printed in Mexico, and in all Spanish Columbia. The Bible thus printed, was also a new version of the Scriptures into the Spanish language, and done by the priests and other literati of the country. It is an improved and valuable version, and does honour to the parties con­cerned and to their country.[3]

Between his first and second visit to Mexico, the writer, digressing for some time from his general visit to the West India Islands, went to the city of Caracas in the State of Venezuela, on the continent of South Columbia. He went westwards, and then southwards, through that state, on to the great river Apure, which brought him into the Orinoco, down which he de­scended, and returned to Trinidad, to resume his West India tour. On all this journey he disposed of copies of the Scriptures, not in great numbers, but still unmolested by opposition. A brief sketch has here been given of the first entrance of the Scriptures into these extended regions. Blessed be God for what has been done, and may He cause this seed sown of the Word of Life, to fructify and bear much fruit, to his own glory and the salvation of many souls!

Evangelical Christendom Vol 1, October 1847: 316-318.

VI

The Indians — Politically free in theory not in fact — Aborigines’ society  might aid them — Civilized — Live on their  allotments — Labour  for hire — Estate of  Temisco — Customs  at Quentepeque —Subject to the laws of the state — Mode of raising  military levies — Religion — Education —- Colleges — Prospects — Languages.

We come now to treat of the Indians.  Mexico and Peru contain the principal portion of them that are civilised. In both these countries, as well as in all the other new nations of these regions, they are politically free, and enjoy the same rights as others.

This is the theory, but the practice differs in some matters. Societies formed in these several countries for the protection and advancement of these indigenous races would be of great advantage. The society in this country for the protection of aborigines[4] could render essential service, by procuring correspondents in each of those parts, and giving encouragement to the form­ation of such societies, after the example and manner of their own. The writer has endeavoured to interest this society in the Indians under consideration. He regrets, however, to say, that he was not encouraged to expect anything extensive or effective in the case, owing to the very low state of their funds. It is to be lamented that this society should be so poorly supported by the British public, as it is a most honour­able and useful line of philanthropy.

The civilized Indians of Southern Columbia are much more numerous than those in an uncivilized state. In this country, we form our opinion of the Indians of Mexico and Peru on what we know of the Indians of North Columbia, where nearly all are in a wandering savage state, and living on the chase. This is not the state of the Indians of Mexico and Peru, and within the territory of the nations under consideration. All these Indians are fixed residents of the several countries, and cultivate the ground for their own support, and for the public markets.

The most usual arrangement in regard to the Indians and their agriculture is, that, attached to each village, there is a portion of land belonging to it, and held in common. Here each one cultivates more or less, as he can, and allotments are made by the alcaldes, or magistrates, according to circumstances, affecting the number of the party's family, and the fertility of the land. Surrounding these common town lands, there are estates, or plantations of the aristocracy of the country. Encroachments are not unfrequently made by these lords on the town lands of the Indians, and one of the uses of Aborigines’ Societies in those quarters would be to protect the Indians from them. There are individual Indian tenures, also, held in small portions of land, and not a few original ancient Mexican documents still exist to these tenures, and they are produced in law courts when cases are tried. These small and individual holders require still more the protection of the philanthropists of their country.

Besides cultivating their own properties, or their patches of the common belonging to the village, these Indians hire themselves to work on the aristocratic domains around them. For this they receive wages, which vary a little in amount, according to circum­stances. The most general daily pay is 2½ rials, equal to about fifteen pence of our money. In some cases they live on the property, and have free houses, besides the wages mentioned. These are the terms in Mexico, on properties surrounding the capital.

These labourers hire themselves individually, when they can manage their own business through a knowledge of the Spanish language. Where they cannot do this it is common enough to have a captain, one of their own people who understands Spanish, to act for them as head-man and overseer, whose business is to arrange all and superintend, not to work.

The writer here selects from his notes some circum­stances on these points. They were made on a sugar estate called Temisco in the neighbourhood of Cuernavaca, on the road from Mexico to Acapulco, and in the town of Cuernavaca.

“This estate of Temisco is fourteen leagues in length, and five in breadth. There are three towns on it: Acatlipa, of 400 inhabitants; Alpuyera, of 1500; and Quentepeque, of 3000. The labourers for the estate are found in these towns. They are hired and headed by one of themselves, who is styled captain; he will have 100 or 200 Indians in his charge, and his privilege is not to labour, but to look on to see that all is right. He speaks Spanish, but all the rest speak only Mexican, and he is called a Coyote, or one of two tongues. Two rials and a half is the general hire, but sometimes it is three rials. The people leave their village for their labour at half-past three in the morning,  begin to work at six, and continue till six, taking half an hour for breakfast, and half an hour for dinner. They bring tortillas with them (cakes made from Indian corn), and have sugar canes free. This is their food. Their pace to and from the estate is a little trot. There is no whipping of them here (Don Rafael observed), nor a person hur­rying them on horseback, though it might perhaps be so, he said, on the plains of Apam. Five hundred persons can be employed on the estate. There are 1400 people living on the property,  besides those in the towns.”

“The people in one of these villages are rather singular,  it is the village of Quentepeque. They live secluded by themselves, and will not allow a stranger to live among them. If any one should be overtaken by the night at their village, they conduct him to the prison (the only goodish house in the place), and convey him out of the village next morning. On one occa­sion these villagers caught a horse stealer, assembled a judge and jury over him, condemned him, and executed him forthwith. In the same village, a wife found guilty of infidelity is publicly exposed to shame.”

In Yucatan, the labourers nearly all live on the estates, and the rule is, that they cultivate a certain portion of land for the proprietor, or raise a certain quantity of produce for him, and for this they have leave to cultivate on the property as much ground for themselves as they please.

Under the Spanish Government, the Indians were exempted from what is called Alcabala, or certain excise duties, but since the change into independence, they are subjected to these in common with all others. This they complain of, though without reason; since, having all the privileges of citizens, they should pay the common burdens. By law, all are obliged to serve in the army as they may be called on. From all military service the Indians were free under Spanish rule. They complain of this change, too, but also without reason. But they have good reason to complain of the unjust proportion they are now called on to bear in the military service; for, in fact, the levies are made from the Indians almost entirely. Perhaps nine-tenths of the armies of the Mexicans we now read of as fighting under Santa Anna, in defending their country from American aggression, are Indians, and this will partly account for the feebleness of the resist­ance and the success of the invaders.

The way the levies are made is as follows. The alcalde receives orders from the head authorities to raise so many men in his villages.  He sits down and bethinks him who are the individuals who will suit. This done be sends to those parties his gens d'armes, and brings them up, and places them for security in the public prison. When all are collected, a long and strong rope is got, and each individual, by a smaller rope, with play for walking, is fastened to this, a row being on each side of the main rope. In this fashion, they are marched to headquarters, and often accom­panied by wives and children in loud lamentations. The writer has seen what is called a cuerda (rope), with 200 attached to it in this manner.

In regard to religion, the Indians are all formally of the common religion of the country, the Roman Catholic. But even in this worse than defective religion they are very poorly instructed. There are many towns in the remote parts of the country where idolatrous ideas are still held and corresponding practices are kept up. This is the case even in some towns only a few miles distant from Mexico; and it is the case, I was told, in regard to the town of Quentepeque above noticed; and the unwillingness to allow strangers to stay in their town is an indication of the continuance of these practices.

Very few of the priests in Mexico speak the native language; and hence arises, as from one cause, the general religious ignorance of the people, I have in my pos­session a very interesting original letter, written by a priest who felt much for the poor Indians. In this letter, the writer, by lively statements, calls upon his friend, another priest, to interest himself on behalf of the Indians, and particularly urges the duty of the priests studying the native tongues, that they may thereby be qualified to give instruction to the people.

In regard to general education, the same neglect has been exhibited. There are, however, hopes of better days on this score. In the preceding article, when treating on Elementary Education, the writer noticed the general desire felt all over those new countries in favour of all classes being taught to read. The Indians are fully included in these desires. Their many native tongues is an obstacle to their education. Undoubtedly the best plan would be to teach them to read in their own tongues. The writer brought this subject before the Government Board of Education in Mexico, in which he had a seat, during his last visit to the country. His report and recommendation were very favourably received, and ordered to be printed in the Government Gazette. At the same time a circular was prepared, and sent through all the country to ascertain the languages spoken in each part, accompanied with inquiries preparatory to the establishing of schools for teaching the people in their own tongues.

In the city of Mexico, and in Lima, the capital of Peru, there is a college appropriated for Indians, and many Indians have made considerable advancement in these colleges. There are some priests now of this race, and no legal disability exists in regard to their occupying any public situation or honour. General Guerrero, who was President in Mexico when the writer first left the country, was at least half of Indian blood.[5] The writer had a long interview with him to explain the system of Infant Schools. On his second visit, when going through the Indian College, his bones were seen carefully preserved there, having been brought from one of the eastern provinces, where he was basely put to death under Government connivance.

The prospects of the Indians is a subject of much interest, and is closely connected with the future his­tory of those regions.

When fair play shall be dealt out to the Indians in practice, as they have been fairly treated in theory by the constitutions of those several countries, they will rise to importance in all those places, especially in the two chief nations there—namely, Mexico and Peru.

In Mexico there are several races speaking distinct languages, and this may perhaps prevent an Indian combination against the European races. But on the other hand, there are about two millions speaking the Mexican, or Nahuatl tongue, which was the court language of Montezuma, and in which the vast ancient empire was ruled.

In Peru, nearly all the Indians speak one tongue; and most likely in this same tongue this nation will yet be combined and governed, and that race and lan­guage embrace the present nations of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador.

The Indian languages are rich both in vocables and grammatical structure. Mr. Gallatin, sometime Minis­ter here from the United States, has rendered a great service by an extensive essay on the American lan­guages, which is published in the second volume of the Transactions of the Massachusetts Historical So­ciety, occupying nearly the entire octavo volume. A copy of this very interesting work the writer brought to this country, and it is now deposited in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society.

Evangelical Christendom Vol 1, November 1847: 349-350.

VII

Protestantism: Its character—Sabbath  desecration—Absence of toleration for Protestant worship —British and American governments blamed for it—What can be done for these countries?—Send Christian ministers—Institute English schools; Ladies’ boarding schools—Encourage settlement of  Christian emigrants— Plan developed—Conclusion.—Gratifying instance of  kindness—grateful reflections.

Protestantism, in these new countries, and toleration, with subjects analogous, come now before as for consideration. The entire body of the natives are Roman Catholics, without, it is believed a single exception. Many, it is true, make light of all religion, still they are, by profession, of the faith mentioned. The Protestants, therefore, in those parts are all foreigners, Americans, English, Germans, and, perhaps, a few Frenchmen.

What is the character of this Protestantism, is a fair question. It may be styled, in the first place, a nega­tive religion. The parties professing it show none, either in public or private, and the opinion formed of them by the natives is, that they have none. On the other hand, they see them very generally fall into the vices of the country, which leads to the conviction that they are irreligious people, and they pass on further, and class them as persons opposed to all religion. The late Archbishop of Mexico,[6] who died about a year ago, was very friendly to foreigners, and particularly to Englishmen, and hence came to know many such personally. He told the writer, that he had known about 400 Englishmen, and that he had only found among them one man of a decidedly religions character, and another about half religious.

The Sunday is spent by our English, and other Protestants there, in shooting excursions, in cricket matches, going to the theatre, bull-baiting, and dancing parties. The two first of these diversions may be called English, in the others they associate with the natives.

In Peru, during the first Congress held there, under their state of independence, the subject of toleration was discussed. Liberal feelings were expressed on the subject, and the majority seemed in favour of it, although it was decided otherwise; and on the ground, that, whilst the enemy still possessed the larger part of the country, it was not a time to take a step of this kind. But, during this discussion, a member got up, and said, “Why all this fuss about toleration? Who is wanting it? We ourselves do not need it, as we are all of one faith.  And as to foreigners, it was not religion that brought them here. They came for money. Give them money and they are contented.”  This was cutting and true.

The apostle's statement will apply to the case in hand: “The name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles through you.” Oh! How often has the writer sighed, and wished that our countrymen visiting and residing in those countries had been even half religious. How much good they could have done had this been the case, and of course how much more had they been not half, but wholly religious. Well he recollects the wonderment of the natives in observing any signs of religion in a foreigner and Protestant,  a proof that it was a thing well settled in their minds that foreigners (not Romanists) had no religion.

The want of toleration for Protestants is a great evil, on the one hand, very injurious to our countrymen, who in general soon lose all religion, and fall into the vices of the country, through the want of a Protestant place of worship; and on the other hand, these countries lose what they might gain by us in the due exhibition of our true faith and religious practices. Surely there ought to be a Protestant chapel, at least wherever there is a British Embassy. It would no doubt have been easy, in forming treaties with these countries at the first, to secure full tolera­tion. Mr. Canning boasted that he created these states, what a pity, that with such power he did not create toleration in them! The United States were as guilty in neglecting this as was our own Government. It is not yet too late to do something; and circum­stances which the writer lately learned in regard to some attention being paid to this subject by Lord Palmerston in the treaty with Chili lead him to hope, that his lordship may take up this matter in good earnest, not only in respect to these ci-devant Spanish colonies, but also in regard to Spain itself, and to all countries whither British subjects resort. Is not reciprocity the basis and the rule in treaties? Apply this, and we obtain all that is wished for. We grant to the subjects or citizens of all those nations with whom we make treaties, that they shall enjoy full reli­gious liberty when with us. The counterpart is, that we should enjoy precisely the same in those countries.

We come now to our last topic, which is, what are the means of usefulness in those parts? What can be done to enlighten and evangelise them?

Where free toleration is enjoyed, the way is clear. We should then have the gospel preached, in the first place, to the English, and then in a more or less direct manner to the natives, according as circumstances might permit. Where religious liberty is not enjoyed, we ought to press upon our Government the duty of procuring it as early as possible, and as a part of our just right as British subjects in treaty or alliance with those nations.

Next to ministers of the gospel earnestly labouring, the best means is through teachers, say of English, and also of general education. English academies would be, it is believed, well supported, and great good might be done by them, both in a direct and an indirect manner.

Ladies' day and boarding schools would be an ex­cellent, and very extensive mode of benefiting those countries. Good female education is much wanted, and much desired, as the writer has reason to know; having been frequently and earnestly solicited to use means for prevailing on some of our English ladies to go out. Some French ladies have gone to different parts of those quarters, and set up schools, and done well. But English ladies would meet with more favour, as there is a conviction in the public mind of our supe­riority.

English merchants, shopkeepers, artisans, and agriculturists settling there and acting with integrity, and under the influence of religious principle, could not fail to be respected, to prosper, and to do much good.

Having made these general observations, as to means of usefulness in those quarters, we would now state them with more precision in the following articles:—

First. A society should be formed for carrying the above indicated objects into effect. The best title to give it would, perhaps, be “The Southern Columbian Philanthropic Society”.

Second, This society should, in the first place, see after the important object of having a chaplaincy con­nected with every British embassy, or factory. Our Government comes forward to meet this case in part, and to the amount of one half of the expense. The other half is to be raised by the British residents themselves. The society in question could furnish a part, or the whole, if necessary, of this half which is required to be raised first, and it should be done with the understanding that the chaplain was to be of their appointment. This would insure suitable persons to be sent out, having truly evangelical and missionary sentiments.

Third. The next object to which this society should turn its attention, is, that of securing all religious liberty to all British subjects in those countries with which we have treaties. This should be sought for and demanded on the plain and true ground of reciprocity. We give to foreigners full religious liberty, we must also have it.

Fourth. Another great object would be, to send out able men to conduct academies, and ladies of proper qualifications to establish ladies’ boarding and day schools. True Christians, of course, should alone be sent for these important offices.

Fifth, Artisans of various crafts should be encouraged to go out, and aided, if necessary, being men of Christian character.

Sixth. Agriculturists should also be encouraged, and helped to proceed to those quarters. Farm servants well acquainted with farming work, and small farmers, might meet with employment, and could be very serviceable for the objects in view by the society. Large agricultural capitalists might be induced to go out through the information given by this society, and its recommendation; or an agricultural company might be formed in connexion with it, or under its auspices. The writer knows two fine pro­perties between ten and twenty miles distant from the city of Mexico, into whose circumstances he particularly inquired; and he believes they might be managed to great advantage under the plan here pro­posed. The cost of the one might he about 300,000 dollars, and the other was purchased, in 1840, for 271,000. Were the writer one of the directors of an agricultural Mexican association, he would recom­mend that these purchases should be made. With capital, and British agricultural skill, results far above their present renderings would be produced.

Seventh. The last item of operations, but not the least, for such a society to undertake, should be that of forming British Christian colonies in those regions. This is a subject which has dwelt much, and long, on the writer's mind, and in furtherance of it he has made some efforts. Who knows whether the writing of these articles for this periodical, and the notices now given, may not be the means and way in Providence for the realization of the object.

On any of the large properties above noticed, a small colony could be formed. But what is here contem­plated is something on a larger scale. Small districts of country, very fertile, and nearly without inhabit­ants, could be procured in all these new states, and, as before mentioned, there is a desire among them for European settlers. Free toleration would at once be conceded to such colonists, and privileges would be conferred on them by way of encouragement. A useful and extended emigration from this country to those might in this manner be effected, and with manifest benefit to all parties,

On returning from his first visit to Mexico, through the United States, the writer printed an address to the citizens of America upon the subject of Christian colo­nies to those quarters. This address was not published, but privately circulated to a small extent. It was in­tended to issue it, or a similar address here, but circumstances prevented. Some copies of it are placed in the hands of Messrs. Partridge and Oakey, 34, Paternoster Row, for sale, and whatever is realised in this way, will be given as a subscription to the Society which is here recommended to be formed. The various modes of acting, and the advantages of such colonies are pointed out in this address, and though objections might, perhaps, be made to some of the things noticed in the way of combination of labour, yet it is believed most of the plan will meet with general approbation.

The writer now concludes these papers. It will be a great pleasure to him to learn that they prove satisfactory to the readers of this journal, of conveying information about regions little known; but a still greater, if his endeavours to draw the attention of the public in this country for the good of those quarters shall be effectual in the adoption of such measures as he has recommended, or of any others essentially good. He feels it his duty thus to call on his Christian brethren on behalf of those regions, both in regard to the general cause of God, and also from a sense of gratitude. He resided and travelled in these countries for thirteen years, visiting them very extensively, and passing through parts little frequented by foreigners; yet during all these travellings, Protestant and foreigner as he was, he received kind treatment from all parties. He could particularise many especial friends he had there, and still has, and several of these are priests; and as to enemies, he does not know that he could name even one. He entertains, therefore, a kind feeling towards the inhabitants of those quarters, and would be glad of an opportunity of befriending them in any way as respects this world's concerns, but still more, in regard to those higher concerns which affect the soul and eternity.

Among the many acts of special kindness experienced, the following may be related.

When crossing the western ridge, or cordillera of the Andes, over Chimborazo, which lies a few miles south of the equator, I stopped a couple of days at a town called Guaranda, about half a day's journey from the summit of the mountain. Here I was kindly treated by the governor of the town, who bought him­self, and recommended others to buy, copies of the Scriptures I was in the practice of selling. When I started on my journey with the high and dreary mountain full before me, I bade this gentleman farewell, and thanked him cordially for all his kindnesses.  I had an Indian, a native Peruvian, for my guide and muleteer. We had travelled on, and left all the habitations of man far below us, when there came on a dreadful storm of thunder and lightning, of rain and hail. We stemmed all for some time, but it would not do, especially as there was no house nor shelter of any sort before us till we should get across the summit.

My guide, better acquainted than myself with this wild place, counselled our returning, as many dangers lay before us. We accordingly turned our faces whence we had come, and began to descend. It was a good while before we could reach the region of houses, and even when we did, we could not get to them, from the steepness of the declivity. At length, however, we reached a miserable cottage, to us a palace, and got shelter. About sunset the storm had ceased, and it was followed by a most beautiful evening. I went out for a little walk, and for evening meditation. I paced up and down the road we had been on during the storm, and with scenery before my eyes perhaps the grandest in the world. In the view of my recent pre­servation in the storm, and of many deliverances from dangers in my journeyings, I felt, and I expressed in God's hearing, (for none else was near) my debt of gratitude, in thanksgiving to the Father of mercies for all His goodness towards me. Besides otherwise, I uttered these feelings in Addison's beautiful hymn, entitled “Gratitude,” commencing with —

“When all thy mercies, O my God,

My rising soul surveys;

Transported with the view, I'm lost,

In wonder, love, and praise.”

This done, I was about to leave the road I was pacing, and to descend the steep declivity leading to our hut. Just as I turned to go down a man came in sight from below, on horseback, and with a led horse saddled besides. As ours was the last house he could reach, and as he did not make for it, I wondered, and my curiosity induced me to stop till he came up. “Pray, friend,” said I, “where can you be going mountain-wards at this very late hour? ” “I am seeking you,” was his reply, and he put into my hands a letter from the governor of Guaranda, in which my good friend said, that observing the storm, and fearing I might he worsted by it, he had sent his servant, and with a led horse for me, with orders to travel on, and through the night, till he should find me. and then see me safe across the mountains, and into the valley on the further side.

If my feelings were not before, they were more at least now, as they ought truly to have been, in the view of all this—

“lost in wonder, love, and praise.”

The writer would only add, that the church in Leith Walk, Edinburgh, which enabled him at first to go out and aided him for the first year, used ever to pray that he might find favour among the people; a prayer that was most remarkably answered, as many other cir­cumstances fresh in the writer’s mind abundantly testify.  And he would take occasion to mention,  in grateful remembrance of God's goodness towards him in all his travellings, his remarkable preservation in the midst of many dangers to which he was exposed. Perils of many kinds might be enumerated, yet in the midst of them all the Lord preserved him in safety, in return for all this he would take up the words of the Psalmist, before all his brethren, especially of this extensive Evangelical Alliance, and say,

           “I will offer to thee the sacrifice of thanksgiving.

           I will pay my vows unto the Lord now

           in the presence of all his people,

          in the courts of the Lord's house,

          in the midst of thee, O Jerusalem,

          Praise ye the Lord.”

CORRIGENDA IN PRECEDING ARTICLES OF THIS SERIES

Madrid, 8th Oct. 1847.

My dear Friend.— In my article, No. 2, on South America, inserted in your number for June last, and in the first column of the same, there are some statements made in favour of Fernando VII, in reference to the Inquisition, which I wish to be corrected, by the inser­tion of this letter in the number containing my concluding article.

I well recollect the time when the statements I have given were made to me, and from whom I had them. Since I have arrived here, however, I have learned that these statements are incorrect, and that nothing is to be said for Ferdinand in regard to the Inquisition, but all his connexion with that institution is against him. The friend here who has enabled me to correct this, has given much attention to the subject, and is pre­paring to publish a new edition of Llorente's work on this pseudo Holy Tribunal, accompanied with much new and interesting matter.

I have another correction which I wish yon particularly to insert. In “South America” No. III inserted in the number for August, in the last paragraph but one of that article, near the close, the word their is put, as indicating, in the th of that word, the sound of the Spanish c and z. This is wrong. It is our other th which assimilates to the sound in question, and as heard in our word three.  I know not how this error originated, but I have thought it necessary thus formally to correct it.

Your kind attention to these two items will very much oblige me.

                        I remain, yours very truly,

                        James Thomson.

Evangelical Christendom Vol 1, December 1847: 387-389.

[1] See final note at end of document re Fernando VII.

[2] The title of this article is continued populariter, but I use in the body of the article the word Columbia, as here, instead of America, for reasons already given.

[3] In his letter from Mexico City to BFBS of 7 September 1842, Thomson states: “A new and improved version of the entire Bible has been published here since I left in 1830. ...It is the first Bible printed here, or in any part of Spanish America, and therefore truly forms an era of a most important kind in regard to these countries. ...The enterprising publisher has much of the merit of the case, and his name deserves to be recorded, which is Mariano Galvan Ribera. But there is another party which has also great merit in this work, namely, the priests of Mexico, by whom the translation was made: there were about eight of them engaged in it. This whole work is taken from the French of Vence, of which it is a translation.”  (BM)

[4] The Aborigines’ Protection Society was formed in England in 1837 by Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, a well-known advocate of the abolition of slavery who headed a royal commission that year to inquire into the treatment of native populations in various British colonies. The society sought to improve the conditions of  native people in British colonies, while encouraging evangelicalism. (BM)

[5] Vicente Guerrero’s address to Congress reads, “If we succeed in protecting the rights of the individual, if equality under the law destroys the forces of power and money, if the primary title we use amongst ourselves is that of ‘citizen’, if rewards are given exclusively for talent and virtue, then we have a republic, and it will be preserved through the universal suffrage of a solidly free and content people.” (BM)

 [6] Manuel Posada y Garduño. Died 1846.  He was párroco of Sagrario in Puebla, during Thomson’s first period in Mexico at a time when Thomson worked with his bishop. (BM)